ls

Overview

ls lists directory contents. Combined with options for long format, sorting, and classification, it is the primary tool for inspecting the filesystem tree from the shell.

Syntax

ls [options] [file...]

Common Options

Option	Description
-l	Long format (mode, owner, size, mtime)
-a / -A	All (include ./..) / almost all (hide ./..)
-h	Human-readable sizes (with -l)
-r	Reverse sort
-t / -S	Sort by mtime / size
-R	Recursive
-1	One per line
-d	List directories themselves, not contents
-F	Classify (/, *, @, …)
--color=auto	Colorize
-i	Inode numbers
-X	Sort by extension

Examples with Explanations

Everyday

ls
ls -la
ls -lah /var/log

Sort by time / size

ls -lt          # newest first
ls -lt | head
ls -lS          # largest first

Directories only

ls -d */
ls -ld /etc /var

Recursive (prefer tree/find for big trees)

ls -R src | head

One column for scripts

ls -1 *.md

Inodes and classification

ls -li
ls -F

Notes & Pitfalls

• Aliases often map ls to ls --color=auto; scripts should call command ls or /bin/ls if needed.
• Locale affects sort order.
• For recursive size, use du not ls -R.

Related Commands

• tree — visual hierarchy
  
• find — search criteria
  
• stat — one-file metadata
  
• dir / vdir — rare synonyms